“I welcome the critical minerals commitment as an author of the ‘Lithium Valley’ report, which set out to make critical minerals part of Australia’s clean energy superpower economy. The partnership with the US is an important step, but it must ensure that net zero is built into the deal at every stage, from mining through to manufacturing. These minerals underpin all green technologies - from solar and batteries to electric vehicles - so we must commit to ‘Net Zero Critical Minerals for a Net Zero Future.”

"Some critical minerals, namely rare earth elements, are found in deposits that contain Naturally Occurring Radioactive Material (NORM) such as, uranium, thorium and potassium-40, in concentrations higher than what is found in average rocks and soils. The mining and processing of this material involves managing the hazard of radiation exposures to workers and the environment. Australia has robust environmental standards and workplace health and safety regulations that requires hazards to be identified, assessed and controlled.

With a long history of uranium and other NORM related mining in Australia is well placed to ensure that adequate safeguards are implemented to protect workers and the environment. ARPANSA has published the Code of Practice and Safety Guide for Radiation Protection and Radioactive Waste Management in Mining and Mineral Processing (RPS 9) that is applied to uranium and sand mining and can be applied to NORM mining if the hazard warrants it. ARPANSA have also published the Safety Guide for the Management of Naturally Occurring Radioactive Material (NORM) to provide industry and regulators with guidance on the best means to manage NORM."

"The environmental challenges of mining are many and varied. There are issues before the mine opens, such as clearing an area of native vegetation and wildlife to allow digging to commence, as well as potential damage to culturally sensitive sites. There is the likely impact during the life of the mine, e.g. chemicals and sediments moving off-site and damaging nearby systems. Big holes in the ground can also disrupt groundwater flow, which can, in turn, affect springs and rivers hundreds of miles away. There is also the issue of rehabilitating the site after the mine has closed (something that some mining companies have tried to avoid in recent years, even though their original licence required it). Site remediation can cost tens of millions of dollars, and if a mining company goes bankrupt or walks away, that cost is shifted to the taxpayer. In short, there is a lot to keep an eye on.

Australia is probably better placed to manage these risks than many other countries. We have extensive collective mining experience, lots of good scientists, strong environmental regulation and a caring public. However, mines are complex, ever-changing sites, and if/when things go wrong, the consequences can be significant. Constant vigilance is therefore still needed even in the best-case scenarios”.

"Australia is uniquely endowed in resources of rare earth elements and other critical minerals needed for the renewable energy transition and for society's high-tech future. Unlocking the value of these resources - beyond simply mining them - while ensuring benefits across society and preserving the environment, should be an imperative for Australia over the next few decades."

“The Australia–US Critical Minerals Partnership is pivotal for diversifying supply chains away from China, whose export controls and market dominance threaten reliable access to key inputs for high-tech, defence, and clean energy industries. This agreement boosts investment and offtake certainty, supporting new mines and securing Western advanced manufacturing value chains.”

“Australia’s ability to develop secure and diverse supply chains for critical minerals creates opportunities to expand into advanced manufacturing, especially in renewable energy and defence technology. Through reducing reliance on Chinese supply chains, we can help reduce the risk of economic coercion and potential export restrictions that could disrupt international production of high-tech and clean energy goods. Strengthening our supply chain resilience enhances Australia’s position as a key partner in supporting global innovation, energy transition, and strategic autonomy for Western economies”

Where are the biggest sources of critical minerals in Australia and are all sources easy to access?

"The Australian Government lists 31 critical minerals recoverable in Australia spread over almost 500 deposits over most of the country.   Ease of access is restricted not usually by location but by infrastructure and processing bottlenecks as well as regulatory, environmental and indigenous constraints. The largest value extracted minerals are: Iron Ore (South Flank Mine, Pilbara, WA), Gold (Boddington Gold Mine, WA), Coal (Loy Yang Mine, VIC), Lithium (Greenbushes Min, WA) and Copper (Olympic Dam Mine, SA). 

What are the environmental challenges of mining critical minerals and how well placed is Australia to manage these risks?

"Environmental challenges are similar whenever a greenfield site is developed. Land disturbance potentially exposes chemically reactive materials which may present a long-term hazard as well as possibly contaminating surface or ground waters.  Water requirements can stress local supplies. Processing may involve energy intensive processes. Mine tailings will require long term storage.
Australia benefits from strong regulatory frameworks and a skilled mining sector making it well placed to manage these risks."

Are there radiation risks in mining critical minerals and how can Australia manage these risks?

"Major risks would be encountered when critical minerals are co-located with naturally occurring radioactive materials presenting the possibility of exposure to gamma radiation. Australia has a long history in recovery of radioactive materials so the necessary regulation and guidance as well as a skilled workforce are already in place."

"Australia’s critical minerals sector is central to the next phase of global industrial policy, in particular the renewable transformation of the world economy. The recent deepening of strategic partnerships highlights that our minerals are not just commodities — they are the building blocks of clean-energy and defence technologies worldwide. This creates a dual opportunity: to strengthen our role as a trusted supplier of responsibly sourced minerals, and to expand into value-added processing and advanced manufacturing domestically.

By investing in refining, battery materials, and other component manufacturing powered by renewable energy, Australia can move up the value chain and capture more of the economic and strategic benefits flowing from the energy transition. These partnerships should be seen not as an end in themselves, but as a stepping stone to develop sovereign capability, regional jobs, and long-term resilience in critical supply chains. The challenge — and opportunity — lies in turning our natural resource strength into industrial leadership in the clean-tech era."

“With more than $6bn in government funding and multiple advanced projects, Australian rare earths are set to contribute to supply the world’s electric vehicle and renewable energy production. However, without investment in refineries and magnet production in allied countries, Australian miners will continue to either sell into or be outcompeted by Chinese domestic industry.

Other issues to consider:

Australian rare-earth miners have been promised more than A$6.1bn in public money – A$3.2bn by Australian government agencies and A$2.9bn from foreign allied governments (USA, Japan, South Korea and Canada). This is a large amount for an industry with a total global trade of less than US$4bn/year.

However, apart from Australian rare-earth mining company Lynas, which sells into the Japanese market, miners are struggling to find potential international buyers. Plans for stockpiles will only provide temporary relief from this crucial gap.

US, Europe and South Korea need to focus investment in their ‘midstream’ (magnet and advanced metal processing industries), if they want to ‘derisk’ EVs and wind turbines from Chinese rare earth supply.

The Australian government has not adequately planned for the environmental, social and cultural impacts of bringing home production of rare-earths. Significant here is managing radioactive waste and building partnerships with First Nations.”

"Australia is the largest producer of lithium and zirconium and is in the top 10 countries in terms of reserves for more than half the critical minerals on the US’ list. Whilst some of these critical minerals are currently being mined proximal to existing infrastructure, others would benefit tremendously from government investment to open up new regions of Australia to further exploration. A pertinent example is niobium in central Australia, where several companies have recently discovered the second-largest deposit in the world.

Yet, it is a logistical challenge to the early stages of refineries in the middle of Australia to concentrate niobium ore and roads to transport this ore to our ports. Such recent discoveries in our outback highlight how much of our country is underexplored, and how we need more geologists to sustain the demand for critical minerals as we move into a greener future.

Despite the clear need for geologists, the future for home-grown talent is bleak. In recent years, earth science departments have closed at the universities of Wollongong, Newcastle and Macquarie, with the Queensland University of Technology currently having similar conversations. Failure to keep our talent pipeline flowing will hamper Australia’s position in the renewable energy sector."

"A major challenge in increasing Australian critical mineral production is the cost and environmental impact of processing. Currently, the vast majority of mineral processing is done in China, even when the minerals are mined elsewhere. It is questionable whether Australian critical minerals can be economically shipped and processed at alternative locations. Processing them in Australia would be very costly due to high environmental standards and labour costs. This highlights the need for technological innovation in the mining and processing of critical minerals."

Where are the biggest sources of critical minerals in Australia and are all sources easy to access?

"Australia is able to produce 9 out of 10 mineral elements required to produce lithium-ion batteries, such as lithium, nickel and cobalt. It also has the highest total reserves of battery minerals."

What are the environmental challenges of mining critical minerals and how well placed is Australia to manage these risks?

"There are many challenges, including land and ecosystem degradation, water and soil pollution, acid mine drainage, reactive tailings disposal, and, in some instances, radioactivity.

However, Australia’s world-leading METS capabilities, coupled with its high ESG standards, place us in a stronger position to mitigate these risks compared to many other mining jurisdictions around the world."

Are there radiation risks in mining critical minerals and how can Australia manage these risks?

"There are both financial and non-financial risks. Financial risks can be addressed through the Federal Government’s proposed critical minerals stockpile initiative. Non-financial risks, such as time overruns and ESG concerns, can be mitigated through the strict environmental regulations already in place."

Are there opportunities for Australia in the manufacturing of new technologies (eg renewable energy technologies and defence) or in the global advancement of renewable energies by providing critical minerals to other countries?

"Absolutely, we are well placed to assist the world in meeting its net-zero targets, especially as many countries in our immediate neighbourhood face existential threats from the looming climate catastrophe.

Australia needs to get its act together and lift its game in enabling the global transition to cleaner, greener, and safer energy in the coming decades. Many critical minerals will also be essential for advanced manufacturing, including in the defence sector."

Are there other things we should be considering (such as whether we have a sufficiently skilled workforce and the future legacy of excessive mineral extraction for future generations)?

"We should consider:

• Building more regional processing hubs with shared infrastructure and microgrids offering royalty exemptions,
• Giving incentives to retrofit facilities to produce critical minerals found alongside main ores, such as cobalt found alongside copper and antimony, with gold
• Investing in a new generation of talent, as we do not have work-capable human resources to address the growing need in this sector
• Establishing Centres of Excellence (one in each state) on critical minerals and creating shared libraries of intellectual property to support research, avoid duplication and optimise resource allocation."

Where are the biggest sources of critical minerals in Australia and are all sources easy to access?

"Australia has significant critical minerals resources, such copper and rare earth elements in South Australia associated with the Olympic Dam and surrounding deposits. These resources are located within highly prospective rocks for similar deposits, but are not easy to access or find as they are buried beneath hundreds of metres of barren sediments that effectively ‘hide’ the deposits."

Are there other things we should be considering (such as whether we have a sufficiently skilled workforce and the future legacy of excessive mineral extraction for future generations)?

"Australia needs to consider the generation of a skilled future workforce in resources extraction to maximise benefits from the critical minerals deal with the US. In particular, we need to supply skilled professionals in the geosciences and mining engineers who are essential for sustainable and safe mining, and both of which are areas that are being cut by universities through departmental closures and amalgamations."

"Madeline King MP, in announcing that nickel would be added to the critical minerals list [1], cited rationale “Minerals such as nickel are essential to the energy transition”[2]. There is no single element more critical to the energy transition than uranium, which currently provides the second largest contribution to low-carbon energy worldwide of 2,602 TWh, second only to hydro power with 4250 TWh, and ahead of all other renewable energy technologies combined [3, Fig 1.1].

Uranium is used in the transition to net zero emissions by Australia’s top five trading partners[3, Fig 1.2], is used in defence technologies and capabilities and has broader strategic applications; is essential to our modern technologies, economies and national security, has Australian potential for resources [5], is in high demand by our strategic international partners, and is vulnerable to supply chain disruption[5]. It meets the stated criteria for inclusion in the critical minerals list and should be added to that list. Or is it politically too difficult for the government to put uranium on the list? Maybe so - but it is precisely because uranium is politically challenging and strategically significant that it should not exist in a blind spot, and it belongs on the list to receive the attention warranted by its significance." 

[1] Department of Industry, Science and Resources (2024) Australia’s Critical Mineral List and Strategic Materials List https://www.industry.gov.au/publications/australias-critical-minerals-list-and-strategic-materials-list
[2] Madelaine King MP (2024) Nickel placed on critical minerals list  https://www.minister.industry.gov.au/ministers/king/media-releases/nickel-placed-critical-minerals-list
[3] International Energy Agency (2025) The path to a new era for nuclear energy https://www.iea.org/reports/the-path-to-a-new-era-for-nuclear-energy
[4] World Nuclear Association (2025) Australia’s Uranium https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/country-profiles/countries-a-f/australia
[5] Vestergaard, C. (2024) Disruption and the Nuclear Industry - The New Era of Nuclear Energy; Stimson Centre, https://www.stimson.org/2024/disruption-and-the-nuclear-industry/